In the response phase the most important step is to assess disaster after occurrence. By disaster assessment, we can obtain all the needed information for controlling, decision-making and also disaster planning. Lack of disaster assessment causes you to make unsuitable decisions based on limited or inadequate data which leads to imperfect disaster response. According to IFRC, disaster response operation will have an unsuitable function without disaster assessment. This paper presents the principles and concepts of disaster assessment.

Introduction: Alternative punishments of imprisonment, which are called as a new approach of the penal system to fight against the negative consequences of prison, have many effects and consequences that need to be investigated. Therefore, in this study, while examining the types of alternative punishments, the moral and social effects of the implementation of these punishments have been explored. Materials and Methods: The present study was conducted using an analytical-descriptive method. In this study, in order to provide an appropriate answer to the question presented, by referring to the theoretical bases (books) and articles published in the ISC, Magiran, Civilica, SID and Ensani in the years 2011 to 2023 and with the method of extracting the existing legal provisions, the effectiveness of this type of punishment was also criticized in reaching the intended goals. Conclusion: The results of this study show that with the implementation of such punishments, the level of public trust, the growth of morals and social capital in the society will also improve. Therefore, the implementation of these punishments, while reducing the criminal population of prisoners and reforming them, provides better implementation of social justice and improvement of public trust, emotional and financial support for the families of criminals

Postmodernism represents skepticism toward metanarratives and universal ideologies that dominated the modernist era. The study focuses on three key postmodernist concepts - alternative assessment, process syllabi, and self-directed learning. Alternative assessment emphasizes evaluating the learning process over summative testing. Process syllabi focus on the learning experience rather than rigid outcomes. Self-directed learning enables student responsibility in setting learning goals and processes. This paper examined the effects of postmodernist educational concepts on improving Iranian EFL learners’ autonomy. A quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test design was utilized with 60 intermediate level Iranian EFL students divided into an experimental and control group (n=30 each). The experimental group received instruction utilizing the three postmodernist concepts over 14 weeks, while the control group received traditional modernist instruction. Autonomy was measured using a validated questionnaire before and after the intervention. The results showed the experimental group demonstrated significant increases in autonomy compared to the control group. Paired sample t-tests revealed significant differences between pre-test and post-test autonomy for the experimental group across all three postmodern concepts - alternative assessment, process syllabi, and self-directed learning. This suggests postmodernist concepts that decentralize instruction and emphasize student process over outcomes can enhance Iranian EFL learners’ self-direction and responsibility for language acquisition. The study implies EFL syllabus designers and instruction should transition to postmodern models centered on individualized assessment, flexible syllabi, and student-guided learning to boost autonomy. Further research can expand sample sizes and explore additional postmodernist concepts across diverse demographics.

Precise Point Positioning (PPP) is a technique to determine the position of a single receiver using un-differenced dual-frequency code and carrier phase observations. In this technique, the precise satellite orbit and clock products obtained from the GPS reference station network are also required. Unlike the relative positioning techniques, the network needed for PPP is not necessary to be dense, and even a sparse network with long baselines like the International GNSS Service (IGS) network can be used. The IGS collects, archives, and distributes GPS observation data sets of sufficient accuracy to satisfy the objectives of a wide range of applications and experimentation. These data sets are used by the IGS to generate the data products which are made available to interested users through the IGS website. Moreover, in contrast to the relative positioning techniques, PPP can provide a uniform accuracy throughout the world without having the reference station observations. In the last decade, PPP has been widely used for the static and kinematic applications. The use of this technique in various applications requires to know its accuracy, processing software requirements, and performing methods. The aim of this paper is to study the performance of PPP by using the static and kinematic observations in comparison with the double difference relative solutions. For this purpose, the static observations of four dual-frequency receivers within Iranian Permanent GNSS Network (IPGN), namely AHVA, SFHN, SNDJ and TORQ, and the kinematic observations of GPS receiver installed on airplane were processed in the PPP and double difference relative solutions by the Bernese GNSS software version 5.0. The Bernese GNSS Software is a scientific, high-precision, GNSS data processing software developed at the Astronomical Institute of the University of Bern (AIUB). It is, e.g., used by Center for Orbit Determination in Europe (CODE) for its international (IGS) and European activities. In the double difference relative solution, the coordinates of 10 IGS stations in ITRF2008, which have been located around Iran, have been chosen as the weighted constraints, where the accuracy of constraints for horizontal and vertical components has been taken equal to 1 mm and 2 mm, respectively. The double difference relative results are assumed as reference values for comparisons. To find the optimum time interval of PPP for obtaining the accuracy better than 10 cm in the horizontal and vertical components, the various sessions have been taken in to account. The GPS station observations of each session are separately processed by the Bernese software in the PPP mode regarding the required parameters such as solid earth tide, ocean tidal loading, windup, antenna phase center offsets and variations for satellites and receivers, and satellite Differential Code Biases (DCBs). Then, the double difference relative results as reference values are subtracted from the obtained PPP results in X, Y and Z coordinates. To show the performance of PPP in both of horizontal and vertical components, the coordinate differences from Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF) reference frame are transferred to the Local Geodetic (LG) reference frame in order to provide Northing (N), Easting (E) and Up (U) coordinates. From the PPP static results, we find that the minimum required time interval of the GPS observations is one hourin order to obtain the accuracy better than 10 cm. For assessment of the PPP performance in kinematic mode, the GPS observations collected by mounted GPS receiver on airplane are processed in relative and PPP modes. The duration of these observations is about 6 hours. In the relative kinematic processing by the Bernese software, the observations of 4 GPS reference stations within IPGN and IGS precise satellite orbit and clock products are used. The outputs of this step are three coordinates of GPS antenna mounted on airplane in 30-second epochs, which are considered as reference values. Like the static mode, the reference values are subtracted from the PPP kinematic results in X, Y and Z coordinates and transferred to the LG frame. The results show that the accuracy better than 10 cm and 20 cm can be obtained using the PPP kinematic technique in the horizontal and vertical components, respectively. These accuracies are enough for many applications such as hydrography, aerial photogrammetry and navigation. As a result, this study shows that the PPP technique can be an adequate alternative for the relative techniques.

Introducing alternative modes of assessment is but one response to the recent call for democratic and ethical language assessment. Yet, despite the recent emphasis in the discourse community and the rise in publication on alternative assessment, these new forms of assessment still need to be explored further. This study is a two-fold attempt: first, to investigate teachers’ attitudes and beliefs about different aspects of traditional testing and alternative assessment, and second to delve into their ethical orientation and to examine views on language testing apropos of their general ethical viewpoints. A questionnaire was developed and used to collect Iranian EFL teachers’ views on language testing and ethics in general (N = 153). The results indicated that despite its agreed-upon disadvantages, an obstinate stigmatization and refusal of traditional testing may still seem a practice at odds with the common sense. In fact, until a better proposal can be offered, alternative assessment and traditional testing can best be regarded as supplements rather than substitutes.

Abstract Rising threats, such as climate change, have thus far resulted in disruptions to ecosystems. Therefore, ecological resilience (eco-resilience) to absorb such distractions and maintain the capacity of ecosystems has been the focal point of numerous studies. In most cases, the characteristics of ecosystems are considered as indicators shaping this type of resilience. In this study, an alternative approach was adopted to examine the performance and outcomes of an ecosystem instead of reflecting on affective factors. Therefore, the resilience index (RI) of an urban forest park was assessed using eco-functional indicators, such as eco-volume (Veco), eco-height (Heco), bio-volume (Vbio), and eco-volume (Veco). At first, the forest park zoning was done. Then, each of the introduced indicators was calculated based on its specific parameters. Finally, the RI of the urban forest park was premeditated. The results showed that each zone with more effective Veco, Heco, and Veco gained a higher score in terms of resilience. The obtained score for RI was thus the function of the current ecological state of each zone. The study conclusions also confirmed that the outputs of the applied framework could embody the main indicators of resilience assessments (viz. thresholds, adaptive capacity, and self-organization). The application of this model on a larger scale required further studies.

In recent years, many areas of instruction and evaluation have undergone reforms in response to changing theories of learning, teaching and testing. One 'such reform is that the era of testing has changed into an era of assessment (Birenbaum, 1996, p.22).This study aims at comparing and contrasting the traditional methods of testing and the new trends of assessment. In the course of this overview, the traditional testing model and its drawbacks have been drafted. This is followed by dealing with the contributions of testing and assessment to language learning through providing feedback to the students. It continues with the discussion of alternative assessment in the domain of language skills and attempts to form the theoretical basis of the current study on the effectiveness of alternative assessment techniques in language learning. Finally, report of an experiment conducted by the researchers will be given supporting the view that alternative assessment techniques can significantly affect students' writing performance.